What is the difference between vocal clue and auditory clue

Even in the absence of these predisposing factors, approximately one in 20 people hear voices or see visual hallucinations at least once in their lifetimes, according to mental health surveys conducted by the World Health Organization. Whereas most researchers have focused on the brain abnormalities that occur in people suffering at an extreme end of this spectrum, Powers and his colleagues have turned their attention to milder cases in a new study.

Normally when the brain receives sensory information, such as sound, it actively works to fill in information to make sense of what it hears—its location, volume and other details. For example, we are able to hear the sound of running water or the murmur of a friend talking across the room and then react in an instant, Abi-Dargham says. One theory posits hallucinations arise when the brain relies too strongly on these expectations, filling in details even when an actual auditory input does not exist.

Culture and religion may also play a role in interpreting what individuals perceive, and whether the voices they hear are helpful or disruptive. To test the idea that hallucinations are the result of an over-expectant brain, Powers and fellow Yale University psychologist Philip Corlett decided to study a diverse group of people who reported hearing voices on a regular basis—including those who had been diagnosed with psychosis, along with self-identified psychics who had not been diagnosed with any psychiatric illness.

The team visited a local Connecticut organization for psychics and began interviewing people. They vetted individuals using forensic psychiatry techniques to ensure that people were not simply pretending to experience auditory hallucinations. Next the researchers designed a series of experiments to introduce new beliefs about sensory information. The team introduced this new information—in the form of a Pavlovian learning task—to the psychics, patients diagnosed with psychosis, and others in a control group who had not heard voices before.

The latter group included both people who had been diagnosed with psychosis and healthy adults. They paired a visual stimulus of a checkerboard on a computer screen with a brief 1-kilohertz tone, presenting the light and sound repeatedly until participants learned to associate the two. Then they measured how much people relied on this prior sensory knowledge when shown the visual stimulus without the sound.

But the researchers found that both the psychics and people who were prone to psychosis were more likely to hear the tone when none was presented than were those who did not hear voices.

The two voice-hearing groups were also much more confident in their assertion that the sound had occurred. Powers and Corlett took these reports to mean these groups had developed extremely strong beliefs that the visual cues were associated with tones. Their prior belief that a tone was always accompanied by a sound was driving the auditory hallucination. When the researchers performed additional no-tone trials, however, the psychics and the group of healthy adults who did not hear voices were able to revise their beliefs about the association, or lack thereof, between the checkerboard and the tone.

But those in the study who had been diagnosed with a psychotic illness—both voice-hearers and nonhearers—were unable to detect that the tone was no longer present. The findings, published today in Science , provide insight into a common neural mechanism that may drive auditory hallucinations as well as what may make these experiences more debilitating in some people.

Researchers may be able to use these insights to guide the development of new therapies—whether drugs or brain stimulation such as transcranial magnetic stimulation that targets regions most affected in patients with schizophrenia and other disorders, she says.

Although it may take awhile before such therapies are ready for clinical use, Powers and Corlett remain cautiously hopeful that they can still learn a lot about how the brain works by looking at the biggest difference between the patients with psychosis and the psychics: specifically, how a change in beliefs can affect perceptions.

Be careful if you find yourself in a relationship with a person who learns through hearing, as they'll remember every last detail of your conversation in an argument!

The best way to stimulate learning and communication in an auditory learner is through discussion, group chat and in the lecture hall. Oral presentations and exams help this style of learner, or dication and reciting aloud what they have read or heard.

Seeing as auditory learners won't be able to learn through visual means, they must repeat what they see. Remember that table from Ikea? You'd better give it to them with a full set of instructions, or better yet; read them aloud, as presenting them with a diagram won't work as well. How do you communicate to an auditory learner? Well, simply, by speaking to them. But, if you're in a meeting or conference-type situation, try to vary your tone and pitch to keep your speech fluid and interesting.

Also, you may want to emphasize key phrases and write them down if the pronunciation isn't obvious, to ensure they get the right takeaway. You can spot an auditory learner easily. They'll be the one in your meeting asking a lot of questions!

Auditory learners tend to like to discuss what they hear right away. Songs and audio recordings are a great way for them to learn, as is keeping presentations fairly short, since they can be easily distracted by outside noise. Auditory learners will likely be the ones giving you the most encouragement, often verbally expressing their interest and enthusiasm, and surprising you by following out directives without being reminded.

Kinesthetic learners are a complex bunch and make up just 5 percent of the population. They'll be the ones shuffling and fidgeting during your presentation, or antsy in lengthy meeting. People who have a kinesthetic learning style often struggle learning through traditional means and sedentary activities, like lectures and conferences.

Their minds simply can't make the connection that they're doing something when listening or observing. They need to get up and get involved in the action for it to sink into their memory. Beyond the fact that they find it hard to sit still, kinesthetic learners are often high energy folks who are engaged in sports, or those chirpy people around the watercooler in the morning. They're quick to react, so if you get into an emergency, it's good to have a kinesthetic learner around, with sharp reflexes and a penchant for getting involved.

Kinesthetic learners love to experiment, so give them hands-on tasks and stimulate their learning that way. What's the worst way to communicate with a kinesthetic learner?

Make them sit through a lengthy presentation. Even if you use visual aids, they'll find it hard to stay engaged. If you want to work well with with the kinesthetic learners in your company, give them a challenge where they can get their hands dirty.

If you know you've got a kinesthetic learner who needs to sit through a conference, try to allow for regular intervals. Give them tasks to carry out with teammates, like role playing and group work.

Understanding the different types of learners and making concessions for their learning styles will improve your communication and help prevent frustration or misunderstanding. You may think that a visual learner isn't interested in what you're saying, or that a kinesthetic learner is being rude or disruptive, by not being able to focus.

Adjust the way you deliver your speech, structure your employees' workloads differently, or bond in an active group exercise and you'll soon see improved results.